Second Language Acquisition Research Research Articles

Investigating Chinese university students’ foreign language enjoyment and anxiety in the EFL class

Abstract Emotion research in second language acquisition has flourished under the growing influence of Positive Psychology in recent years. The present study focuses on foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) of 263 Chinese undergraduates in relation to learner variables as well as the sources of enjoyment and anxiety in the English class. Surveys with scales and open-ended questions were applied to collect data. Quantitative analysis revealed that learner variables, such as participants’ gender and their year of university, affected their FLCA but not FLE, while participants’ perception of their English levels was significantly linked to both FLE and FLCA. Furthermore, the uniqueness of Chinese FL learners’ FLE and FLCA was uncovered from participants’ narratives of their emotional experiences in College English class. The results of open-ended questions clarified that interesting teaching content, students’ good performance and progress, and well-designed classroom activities were effective boosters for foreign language (FL) learners’ enjoyment. Moreover, public speaking, the teacher’s random call, and peer pressure were closely related to spikes in students’ in-class anxiety. This study concluded with implications for EFL teaching, along with directions for further research.

Reflecting on the use of response times to index linguistic knowledge in SLA

Abstract Response times (RTs) have become ubiquitous in second language acquisition (SLA) research, providing empirical evidence for the theorization of the language learning process. Recently, there have been discussions of some fundamental psychometric properties of RT data, including, but not limited to, their reliability and validity. In this light, we take a step back to reflect on the use of RT data to tap into linguistic knowledge in SLA. First, we offer a brief overview of how RT data are most commonly used as vocabulary and grammar measures. We then point out three key limitations of such uses, namely that (a) RT data can lack substantive importance without considerations of accuracy, (b) RT differences may or may not be a satisfactory psychometric individual difference measure, and (c) some tasks designed to elicit RT data may not be sufficiently fine-grained to target specific language processes. Our overarching goal is to enhance the awareness among SLA researchers of these issues when interpreting RT results and stimulate research endeavors that delve into the unique properties of RT data when used in our field.

SLA as an interdiscipline: A bibliometric study

Nowadays, research in second language acquisition (SLA) is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary while many technical frontiers and research hotspots have emerged. Many studies focus on interdisciplinary topics, but few in-depth studies have been conducted on interdisciplinarity. This study examined the interdisciplinarity of SLA and the interdisciplinary development process using a bibliometrics approach. The study has found that the SLA discipline has played roles as both the provider and recipient of knowledge in the development of interdisciplines. In the first case, SLA theories and methods flow into the research areas of life sciences and technology to form interdisciplinary studies with brain research, neurology, cognition, computer technology, and engineering, making SLA a provider of knowledge In the second case, SLA research receives knowledge from areas of arts and humanities and social sciences as well as from interdisciplinary studies within its own discipline, making SLA a receiver of knowledge. The new insights into the interdisciplinarity of SLA provided in this study are helpful for our deeper understanding of the interdisciplinary nature of the SLA discipline.

Older language learners: 'always too late' vs 'never too late'. A mixed-methods approach

Research in second-language acquisition considers age as a major factor that has an impact on the ability of an individual to learn a foreign language. The debates are still dominated by the so called 'critical period' theory, developed in the sixties. According to this neurocognitive theory, there is an ideal window of brain development to acquire a language at a very young age, after which learning a language becomes much more difficult, and apart from some 'exceptional' cases, it is almost impossible to attain native-like proficiency. Much of this research has focused on those 'exceptional' learners, implying that for adult language learners it is 'always too late'. While acknowledging this pure neuro-linguistic approach, this paper aims to go beyond this reductionist approach and to contribute to this complex and under-researched field. It explores two aspects of the relationship between age and learning a language within a university context: the impact of age on study trajectories of languages students using quantitative methods, and the lived experiences of language students drawing on a combination of qualitative research and phenomenology. The findings of this study reveal some fundamental aspects of what it means to learn a language as an adult from the first-person perspective and show the importance of introducing an existential view of older language learners, suggesting that is 'never too late'.

Learning from Diane: Her Achievements and Profound Influence on Researchers and Language Teachers in China

Professor Diane Larsen-Freeman has been an enduring and highly influential contributor to the field of applied linguistics, English language teaching, in general, and especially grammar teaching. She has inspired many thousands of language teachers, student-teachers and academicians in applied linguistics. Her research in Second Language Acquisition and her later research interest in introducing complex systems to the field of applied linguistics has had a great impact on research in applied linguistics. The book she co-authored with Cameron put a completely different perspective on language and language studies. Her book on teaching approaches also attracted thousands of readers who specialize in language teaching. The video made on different teaching methods covered in the book is also a good demonstration helping learners identify the features of different methods. What’s more, her coinage of the word “grammaring” and the concept of form-meaning-use she advocated in the book series Grammar Dimensions has shed light on people’s understanding of grammar and grammar teaching, thus transforming the way of teaching grammar. Her numerous publications of influential books and papers have great impact on researchers and language teachers in China.

Uncovering Sampling Biases, Advancing Inclusivity, and Rethinking Theoretical Accounts in Second Language Acquisition: Introduction to the Special Issue SLA for All?

AbstractThe social sciences have grappled with sampling biases, perhaps most notably the prevalent reliance on convenience samples drawn from university student populations. Researchers in second language acquisition (SLA) have likewise taken steps to assess and address the scope of these biases and their effects on theory construction. This special issue presents a collection of replications and registered replication reports comprising one such initiative, titled SLA for All? The replications aimed to evaluate the generalizability of findings from foundational SLA studies, which were obtained with university‐educated participants, to nonuniversity participant groups. In this introduction to the special issue, we review and discuss the general failure to replicate the initial results, the complex notion of replication, and questions of research ethics. We offer an in‐depth reflection on how our perspectives, practices, and future plans have evolved and conclude with a vision for a more inclusive, diverse, and informative approach to SLA research going forward.

AI-driven Technology and Chatbots as Tools for Enhancing English Language Learning in the Context of Second Language Acquisition: A Review Study

The proposed review study aims to explore the role of AI-driven technology and chatbots in enhancing English language learning within the context of second language acquisition. With the increasing integration of technology into language education, AI-driven tools and chatbots have raised as innovative approaches to provide personalized and interactive learning experiences. This review study aims to examine the effectiveness of these tools in improving language proficiency, learner engagement, and learner autonomy. The review involves a comprehensive analysis of relevant literature, including empirical studies, theoretical frameworks, and best practices in the field. The findings reveal that AI-driven technology and chatbots offer numerous benefits, such as individualized feedback, adaptive learning pathways, and authentic language interactions. Moreover, they promote learner’s motivation, active participation, and self-directed learning. However, challenges regarding the design, implementation, and assessment of these tools also emerge. This review study provides insights into the potential and limitations of AI-driven technology and chatbots in English language learning and suggests future directions for research and pedagogical applications in second language acquisition.

A Decade of Research Into Second Language Acquisition: A State-of-the-Science Review (2009-2019)

Abstract This study investigated the knowledge domain of second language acquisition (SLA) research in 2009-2019. It selected about a decade of studies in the SLA knowledge domain and applied an available data analysis tool CiteSpace to show a picture of SLA research. The 11-year period of studies was retrieved from the Web of Science database, totally 4, 660 bibliographic records. By employing the embedded algorithm analyzing literature in CiteSpace, the present study found the factors influencing SLA and statistical models were critical aspects in L2 research, and research topics were conducted in psychological, neuroscience, linguistic, and language teaching frameworks. Additionally, research patterns in the SLA domain have become more diversified, and empirical studies of cognitive science have gradually taken a dominant position in recent years. Spikes of increased numbers of detected papers in the period of 2009-2019 showed research focus and methodology would possibly continue to be interdisciplinary in future research.

The impact of L2 learners’ altruistic teaching on their task engagement in English essay writing

The purpose of the present analysis was to investigate the impact of altruistic teaching, i.e., teaching with self-less motives (a concept in positive psychology), on the students' task engagement in English essay writing. To this end, the present study adopted two designs, i.e., an experimental (comparison group, pretest-posttest) design to investigate if the learners' altruistic teaching affects their task engagement statistically significantly in the short and long run by using a task engagement questionnaire, and a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design to explore how it affects their task engagement by using reflective frames and semi-structured interviews. The participants were 122 Iranian EFL learners with an intermediate level of English language proficiency. The results of quantitative and qualitative analyses showed that altruistic teaching enhances the students’ task engagement in the short and long run by creating in them a sense of enjoyment, self-verification, responsibility, bonding and group learning, less anxiety, self-confidence, progress in learning, finding out about strengths and weaknesses, and more enthusiasm to learn. The paper ends with theoretical and pedagogical implications for research and practice in second language acquisition (SLA).

Speaking proficiency and affective effects in EFL: Vlogging as a social media‐integrated activity

This study introduces an innovative approach to improving speaking proficiency among Korean EFL learners through the use of vlogs, further evaluating their impact on learners' foreign language speaking anxiety (FLSA) and willingness to communicate (WTC). In this semester‐long experiment, 49 university students were divided into an experimental group (n = 25) and a control group (n = 24). The former engaged in vlogging activities, while the latter received traditional instruction devoid of social networking. Data were collected via pre‐ and post‐questionnaires on FLSA and WTC, coupled with pre‐ and posttests assessing speaking skills. Vlogging significantly decreased FLSA and bolstered WTC in Korean EFL learners, demonstrating a marked improvement when contrasted with the control group. Additionally, the experimental group, engaged in vlogging, displayed superior advancement in vocabulary, comprehension, fluency and task proficiency. However, no discernible enhancements were observed in speaking accuracy when compared to the control group. With the evidence of reduced anxiety, increased communication willingness and enhanced speaking proficiency in the vlogging group, this study provides a concrete foundation for EFL teachers to consider integrating vlogging and similar social media‐based activities into language instruction. This approach could contribute to creating more engaging and comfortable learning environments, aiding learners in overcoming affective barriers and improving their language skills. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Prior research in second language acquisition probed the impact of social media on diverse language learning areas: vocabulary, intercultural learning, speaking skills, pronunciation and writing skills. Social media‐integrated language learning demonstrated potential in enhancing oral proficiency among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Limited research exists exploring the influence of social media, especially vlogging, on EFL learners' speaking skills and affective factors such as Willingness to Communicate (WTC) and speaking anxiety. What this paper adds This study demonstrates that a learning environment cultivated via social media, particularly vlogging, improves speaking proficiency and positively influences affective factors like Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety (FLSA) and WTC. The findings suggest that social media‐integrated speaking activities, specifically vlogging, offer a beneficial and effective pedagogical strategy to ameliorate speaking proficiency, FLSA, and WTC in supportive and non‐intimidating contexts. Implications for practice and/or policy This study offers crucial insights for EFL teachers planning courses to enhance speaking proficiency: The integration of vlogging and similar social media‐based activities into language instruction is strongly supported by the evidence of reduced anxiety, increased communication willingness and enhanced speaking proficiency in the vlogging group. This study provides a concrete foundation for such innovative approaches. The creation of an engaging, interactive and stress‐free learning environment is essential, enabling learners to practice speaking English without anxiety. This approach can also aid learners in overcoming affective barriers and enhancing their language skills. EFL educators should prioritize improving key attitudinal factors, such as anxiety and WTC. These factors significantly contribute to the holistic development of oral proficiency. When incorporating social media‐based speaking activities like vlogging, teachers' targeted feedback on recurring learner mistakes can foster improvements in speaking accuracy. EFL teachers must recognize their critical role in nurturing a supportive, non‐intimidating environment, paving the way for learners to effectively enhance their speaking proficiency.

Relevance theory and the study of linguistic interfaces in second language acquisition

AbstractIn this paper we address Relevance-theoretical (RT) postulates with clear potential for contributing to the substantiation of the notion of interface in second language acquisition (SLA) processes. Whether the interface is considered the locus of contact between the structural linguistic properties and syntactic operations, on one hand, and the interpretive mechanisms of the conceptual-intentional system, on the other; or understood as points of interaction among cognitive modules, interfaces are fundamental to interpreting grammatical structures that require integrating discourse-contextual information. Assuming the RT conceptual-procedural meaning distinction is approximately correlated with that which exists between lexical and functional categories, it will be shown that recent research into SLA revolves around the problem of how procedural units are acquired. Certain functional categories, expressing interpretable features, have been analysed as encoding identical procedural indications across different languages. Thus, one challenge that L2 learners face is identifying diverse interface effects, derivable from a single procedure, across languages. To illustrate this point we discuss a recent analysis of phenomena involving tense and aspect acquisition applying RT principles to empirical findings. Finally, some new directions will be suggested for further theorizing in SLA research on inherent characteristics of utterance interpretation in an L2.

The Impact of Orthographic Transparency and Typology on L2 Learner Perceptions

While there is substantial research on literacy in the L1, factors impacting literacy in the L2 remain understudied. Preliminary research indicates that orthographic accuracy and typology influence literacy acquisition, indicating these aspects of linguistic representation need further exploration within the context of second-language acquisition (SLA). Additionally, SLA research on individual learner differences highlights emotional factors such as attitude and motivation, which are widely considered critical indicators of L2 success. Motivation is closely linked to perceptions towards the L2, which indicates learner perceptions of L2 literacy could impact success in learning to read and write. As such, this paper presents a cross-lingual, mixed-methods study that compares the orthographic transparency and typologies of 26 languages against learners’ (n = 217) perceptions of L2 literacy acquisition, such as perceived difficulty of the orthography and a self-assessment of literacy skills. Results indicated that orthographic transparency has a greater impact on learners’ perceptions compared to typology alone.

Collecting Big Data Through Citizen Science: Gamification and Game-based Approaches to Data Collection in Applied Linguistics

Abstract Gamification of behavioral experiments has been applied successfully to research in a number of disciplines, including linguistics. We believe that these methods have been underutilized in applied linguistics, in particular second-language acquisition research. The incorporation of games and gaming elements (gamification) in behavioral experiments has been shown to mitigate many of the practical constraints characteristic of lab settings, such as limited recruitment or only achieving small-scale data. However, such constraints are no longer an issue with gamified and game-based experiments, and as a result, data collection can occur remotely with greater ease and on a much wider scale, yielding data that are ecologically valid and robust. These methods enable the collection of data that are comparable in quality to the data collected in more traditional settings while engaging far more diverse participants with different language backgrounds that are more representative of the greater population. We highlight three successful applications of using games and gamification with applied linguistic experiments to illustrate the effectiveness of such approaches in a greater effort to invite other applied linguists to do the same.

Cognitive individual differences in the process and product of L2 writing

AbstractThis paper examines how research in second language acquisition has approached the study of cognitive individual differences in the process and product of L2 writing from a theoretical and empirical perspective, paying special attention to the three empirical studies included in this special issue. The paper is divided into three sections. The first section examines the cognitive abilities that have been investigated in L2 writing research, among which working memory stands out as the most widely studied. The second section synthesizes the findings reported by the empirical studies in this issue in relation to the role of working memory in L2 writing behaviors and outcomes. The last section suggests future lines of research that can broaden the current scope of research on writing and cognitive individual differences, mostly centered on the components of the working memory system. This research has important theoretical implications, as little is known about how different cognitive individual differences are implicated in writing, as well as pedagogical implications, as the findings can inform about optimal performance and learning conditions for learners with diverse cognitive ability profiles.

Current perspectives on Learner Corpus Research

Learner Corpus Research (LCR) is a relative newcomer to the scene of research paradigms and methodologies within applied linguistics and second language acquisition (SLA) research. In addition to other types of data that have traditionally been used in SLA research, learner corpora provide large-scale principled collections of authentic, continuous and contextualized language use by foreign/second language (L2) learners that are stored in electronic format. They enable the systematic and (semi-)automatic extraction, visualization and analysis of large amounts of learner data in a way that was not possible before. Access to and analysis of learner corpus data is greatly facilitated by the digital medium, and the sheer quantity of data can help to explore SLA phenomena from non-experimental perspectives (Callies 2015). Although the majority of learner corpora may appear relatively small in size when compared to large reference corpora of several major European languages that comprise billions of words of text, they contain datasets for general use that are still many times larger than the oftentimes narrow(er) datasets collected in SLA research through more strictly controlled elicitation techniques. LCR as a field only emerged and became visible at the turn of the 1990s in the context of the popularization of corpus linguistics at large, but has rapidly evolved and grown in scope and sophistication over the past three to four decades. It now bears all signs of an established discipline: it has an academic journal, the International Journal of Learner Corpus Research, that has been publishing studies in LCR since 2013; two handbooks that survey the field and its links to the major neighbouring disciplines of corpus linguistics, SLA and language teaching (Granger, Gilquin and Meunier, eds., 2015; Tracy-Ventura and Paquot, eds., 2021); and a biennial, international conference that has been organised since 2011 under the aegis of the field’s own professional organisation, the Learner Corpus Association, officially founded in 2013. Because of its origin, LCR has initially been a relatively European-centred research field but has in the meantime made significant inroads into North America, South Africa (van Rooy 2019) and the Asia-Pacific region (Jung 2022). It is by now a vibrant and growing international community. This paper provides some perspectives on recent and current achievements and developments in the field, highlights several new trends and initiatives, but also discusses some challenges. The focus will be on LCR and the study of learner English.

Lessons from exceptional language learners who have achieved nativelike proficiency: Motivation, cognition and identity

Work in ‘ultimate attainment’ attests to an adult learner’s ability to pass for a native speaker in a second language (L2) community (e.g. Moyer 2021). There are, however, several questions inviting further enquiry into the late L2 learners’ approach to advanced attainment, including ‘how do they marshal different resources—often complex and shifting—to achieve remarkable learning outcomes?’, and ‘can their success be repeated by other students?’ With such questions in mind, the book under review is concerned with life experiences and learning practices of carefully sourced individuals who have reached advanced mastery of a second language. It not only explores these individuals’ language learning trajectories in a systematic fashion but also examines the sources of exceptionality and the factors that intersect in the process of exceptional language learning. In contrast to earlier work, which modelled exceptionality through quantitative surveys and experiments, the book adopts a narrative approach to help demystify the developmental and experiential dimensions of exceptional language learning, unlock the approach such individuals adopt to engage with language learning, and uncover unique insights that are currently overlooked by research and practice in the area of nativelike language learning. The volume, through its 12 chapters, explores diverse themes (e.g. the motivational capacity of vision, the motivation–cognition interaction, and professional identity development) which are of theoretical and applied value to researchers in second language acquisition, language teachers, and scholars working in the psychology of language learning.

Individual Differences in Second Language Learning: A Book Review

In second language acquisition (SLA), an understanding of individual differences (IDs) is the key to grasping both the variant and invariant aspects of it (Li et al. 2022: xxiv). Given the complex and dynamic role of IDs plays in the L2 learning process, researchers have made efforts to reach a clear, accurate, and comprehensive picture of how IDs work. However, current studies on IDs generally adopt a monolithic view lacking systematic integration, which fails to provide a meta-theory of IDs (Dörnyei 2009). The two books under review present relatively comprehensive, thorough, and updated accounts of ID research in SLA. Understanding Variability in Second Language Acquisition, Bilingualism, and Cognition, situated from a multidisciplinary perspective of theory and method like psychology, sociology, and math, sets an example of innovative explorations of IDs in SLA and proposes a nested structure of multiple contextual levels to probe IDs. In contrast, The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition and Individual Differences is an excellent encyclopaedia of ID research for its extensive breadth and depth. This book provides an overview of ID-related theories, research, pedagogy-oriented applications, and research methods. In short, these two contributions on IDs, are welcome additions to the traditional universalist perspective in SLA with significant implications for advancing both the theory and practice of IDs and SLA.

The Impact of Altruistic Teaching on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Learners’ Emotion Regulation: An Intervention Study

The second language acquisition (SLA) field has recently seen heightened interest in the study and application of positive psychology (PP). Emotion regulation is one of the concepts that has been stressed in PP. Several studies in PP have delved into how controlling one's emotions improves second language learning/teaching. One of the concepts that has slipped the minds of researchers in the field is altruistic teaching. Unlike egocentric acts, altruistic teaching acts are performed to improve others' well-being. Despite their importance in causing positive emotional effects, no study has investigated the impact of altruistic teaching acts on learners' emotion regulation. To bridge this gap, the present study sought to investigate the effect of learners' altruistic teaching on their emotion regulation. The study followed a sequential explanatory comparison group pre-test-post-test design. One hundred forty-one English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners were recruited for this intervention study and were divided into experimental and control groups. Learners in the experimental group performed altruistic teaching by teaching their peers how to write essays in English, whereas learners in the control group did group work tasks on English essay writing. The results of independent-sample t-tests and repeated-measures ANOVA showed that altruistic teaching significantly impacts EFL learners' emotion regulation. The results of qualitative data pointed to five themes, including enjoyment, self-esteem, bonding, devotion, and progress. Overall, the results suggested that altruistic teaching impacts learners' emotion regulation by enhancing their enjoyment, self-esteem, bonding, devotion, and progress. The paper has theoretical and pedagogical implications for SLA research and practice.

An appraisal‐based examination of language teacher emotions in anxiety‐provoking classroom situations using vignette methodology

AbstractDespite emerging evidence for the link between teacher emotions and student outcomes, research on language teachers’ classroom emotions is still scarce. This study adopts a framework rooted in appraisal‐based emotion theory to explore the complexity of teachers’ emotional lives and the nature of language teacher emotions in the classroom, using anxiety as a starting point and drawing on vignette methodology for emotion elicitation. A total of 272 foreign and second language teachers from North America, Asia, and Europe completed an online version of the Foreign Language Teacher Emotion Questionnaire. Each teacher evaluated two vignettes of anxiety‐provoking classroom scenarios along six appraisal dimensions and reported their emotions. Results indicate great levels of emotional complexity, revealing both the frequent presence of multiple positive emotions and the rare experience of anxiety as the sole emotion in anxiety‐provoking classroom scenarios. At the same time, regression analyses found that anxiety's appraisal pattern explains between 16% and 48% of the variance in anxiety across all vignettes. Implications for adopting appraisal‐based emotion theories and vignette methodology in language teachers’ classroom emotion research in second language acquisition are discussed.

How epistemic anxiety and curiosity link perceived value and intended efforts in the language classroom

AbstractLanguage learner anxiety—and emotions in general—has constantly attracted academic attention in the second language acquisition (SLA) field for almost 40 years (Plonsky et al., 2022). However, within the context of the foreign language classroom, epistemic emotions remain understudied, despite their demonstrated effects on performance (D'Mello et al., 2014) and learners’ cognitive processes (Muis et al., 2018a). Epistemic emotions are academic emotions that “relate to knowledge-generating qualities of cognitive tasks and activities” (Pekrun et al., 2017, p. 1268). Their object focus lies in the generation of knowledge (Vogl et al., 2019a) and therefore are prominent during learning activities in academic settings. Recent research in SLA shows that epistemic emotions play a considerable role in instructed language learning (Fraschini, 2023; Nakamura et al., 2022). This current study analyses how two common epistemic emotions—epistemic anxiety and curiosity—mediate the link between a learner's perceived value and intended effort. Empirical data was collected using a tailor-designed survey administered to learners of Korean as a foreign language enrolled in a hybrid university course. Results show that epistemic anxiety and curiosity are independent of each other and coexist during language learning tasks. Furthermore, both epistemic emotions significantly correlate to a learner's perceived value of language learning, with opposite effects. While learners with a higher perceived value tend to be more curious, they also appear less anxious. These results are further discussed considering teachers’ and learners’ characteristics and in relation to theoretical and pedagogical implications for the language classroom.